Organizational Culture Organisational Culture Essay

Organizational Culture Defined In accordance with the Business Dictionary, organizational culture (similarly entitled Corporate Culture) is the standards and conducts which subsidize to the distinctive communal and the psychosomatic atmosphere of an establishment. Organizational culture incorporates an establishment s expectancies, knowledges, perspective, and principles which sustain it, collectively, and is articulated in its individual-representation, internal workings, collaborations with the external domain, and impending expectancies. (Business Dictionary, 2016) Organizational culture is constructed on communal perspectives, convictions, traditions, and inscribed and unrecorded administrates which have been arisen over a while and are deemed acceptable. Furthermore, corporate culture, it s demonstrated in the manner the establishment accomplishes its transactions, regards its workforces, consumers, and the broader communal; correspondingly, organizational culture entails the degree to which liberty is allowable in decision making, fostering modernistic philosophies, and individual manifestation, by what means authority and information surge through its hierarchy, and exactly how dedicated workforces are regarding cooperative objectives. (Business Dictionary, 2016) Organizational culture shakes the establishment s production and functioning, and affords strategies on consumer consideration and service, product characteristic and security, attendance and punctuality,Show MoreRelatedOrganizational Culture And Organisational Culture1916 Words   |  8 Pagesdifferent interpretations on what organizational culture is; it can be defined as †¦ This essay will be discussing and explaining organizational culture and change, furthermore how culture can have an influence on behaviour at work. In addition there will be an discussion on the organizational culture of two UK businesses, as well Organisational Culture Organisational culture is described as a company’s personality or DNA. (Education Portal) has defined organisational culture as ‘a system of shared assumptionsRead MoreOrganisational Culture And Organizational Culture1730 Words   |  7 PagesOrganisational culture refers to ‘the shared beliefs and values guiding the thinking and behavioural styles of members’ (Cooke and Rousseau, 1988, in Bratton 2010: 334), indicating that employees who accept the common values of an organisation and put great effort on commitments are likely to build up a strong culture to an organisation. Edgar Schein (2004) proposed three levels of organisational culture. As employees go through changes, they gain experiences from the past, adapt to a new environmentRead MoreOrganisational Culture And Organizational Culture2261 Words   |  10 PagesThroughout this essay organisational culture will be examined, including the two approaches mainstream and critical. What managers can do to shape culture and also an example of when culture has in fact been changed. Organisational culture can be acknowledged as the organisations personality; which is also referred to as corporate culture. Organisational culture is defined as the process of how things are dealt with within an organisation on a daily basis, affecting the employees and how they workRead MoreOrganizational Behavior: Remaking Jcps Organisational Culture3994 Words   |  16 Pagesonwards. The contributions of Questrom and Castagna were more on optimizing business operation while Mike Ullman and Theilmann were more on changing the organisational culture. Shortly after joining as chairman and CEO of JCP in December 2004, Mike Ullman along with his top management team took various initiatives to change the climate and culture of JCP from the rigid one into more flexible and democratic environment. The most notable among these were the â€Å"Winning Together† principles (WTP), posterRead MoreOrganizational Culture And Organisational Culture1063 Words   |  5 PagesOrganisational Culture Organisational Culture is defined as what the employees perceive and how this perception creates a pattern of beliefs, values and, expectations. Organisational culture differs from organizational climate. Climate refers to more temporary attitudes, feelings and perceptions of individuals (Schneider, 1990). Culture on the other hand is an enduring, slow to change, core characteristic of organisations which is an implicit often indiscernible aspects of organisations, climateRead MoreOrganizational Culture And Organisational Culture2209 Words   |  9 PagesLiterature on organisation culture has been involved rapidly and dynamically despite the relatively new to the concept (Schein, 2004). A considerable number of culture changes and management models have been developed by different scholars. The idea of management culture were hardly believed by many scholars. There are competing perspectives on the nature of organisational culture (Martin, Frost, and O Neill, 2006). The research met hod of organisational culture is fragmented and lacks ownershipRead MoreOrganizational Culture Change Challenges : Organisational Culture2033 Words   |  9 Pages Organisational Culture Change Challenges People and Organisational Culture Topics 1/2 Organisational Culture, 3/4 Change Management, 5/6 Managing Human Resources Assessment 1- T12016 Sharondeep Gill Ducere / University of Canberra â€Æ' The performance of an organization greatly depends on the ability of managers to effectively manage their workforce and resources. There is no single definitive classification of management functions and every organization has its own unique culture upon whichRead More‘Organizational Culture Can Be One of the Most Important Means of Improving Organizational Performance.’ Debate and Discuss.1357 Words   |  6 Pages‘Organizational Culture can be one of the most important means of improving organizational performance.’ Debate and discuss. Every Organization has a culture that constitutes the expected, supported and accepted way of work and behaviour.  Ã‚  These influence everyone s perception of the business from the chief executive to the lowest rank. Organisational culture can be described as the shared values, principles, traditions and ways of doing things that influence the way organizational members actRead MoreOrganizational Culture and Sick Leave1536 Words   |  6 PagesOrganisational Culture and Sick Leave 1 Introduction Sick leave is a significant policy for both employees and employers in modern businesses. This policy can be problematic for Australian business, as employees that aren’t sick are taking leave. These illegitimate claims are causing them to lose millions of dollars. In the case study â€Å"sick leave costing employers† it is exploring the use of this leave in organisations by employees, when not sick. Since this is affecting Australian BusinessesRead MoreTo What Extent Can Organisational Culture Be Managed? Is Organisational Culture Critical to the Success of an Organisation?1417 Words   |  6 PagesTo what extent can organisational culture be managed? Is organisational culture critical to the success of an organisation? Within the field of management, the success and failure of the modern business organisation has been largely depicted by the intricate concept of culture. Organisational culture, a concept borrowed from borrowed mostly from anthropology typically is defined as a complex set of values, beliefs, assumptions and symbols that define the way in which an organisation conducts and

Taking a Look at Intrinsic Motivation - 662 Words

Need: Although there has been countless research done about intrinsic motivation, a lot of it is conflicting when looking at comparisons. Previous studies have looked at the two mechanisms of attribution and perceived competence, as well as the influence of extrinsic rewards on levels of intrinsic motivation. However, they have not directly measured the two variables or focused on reward contingency in multiple aspects in one study. Purpose: The researchers of this experiment sought to clear up certain points, such as the need for direct measures of perceived competence and causal attributions. They also focused on examining the effects of extrinsic rewards that were dependent on ability versus effort, and the effect of extrinsic rewards on increasing or decreasing intrinsic motivation. This is because extrinsic rewards can influence feelings of self-efficacy or how an individual attributes their performance. In addition, since expectancies on internal or external locus of control can affect attribution theory, a measure for locus of control was included in the experiment. Sample: During the spring semester at the University of Toronto, 42 undergraduate students chose to participate in this experiment after seeing advertisements around campus. After contacting the researchers, blind participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions for three upcoming sessions. Due to failure of participants not attending all 3 required sessions or computerShow MoreRelatedThe Self-Determination Theory by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan1720 Words   |  7 PagesThe motivation of different individuals can vary for many reasons, two of those reasons can be internal and external factors. The internal factors are referred to as intrinsic motivators and the external factors are signified as extrinsic motivators. The Self-Determination Theory developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan is constructed on the basis of three distinctive psychological essentials, which include competence, relatedness, and autonomy (self-determination) (Moneta, 2004, p. 181). In orderRe ad MoreEdlhodm1729 Words   |  7 Pagesinclude learner motivation, communication between learners and educators, interpersonal relations between learners and educators and how to ensure discipline in the classroom. Question 1 Learner motivation Motivation means being able to focus on a task, starting the task and completing it successfully. There are two types of motivation. The first type, extrinsic motivation, refers to being motivated by a specific and desirable outcome or tangible reward. The second, intrinsic motivation, refers toRead MoreThe Importance Of Creativity By Julie Burstein, And Teresa Amabile Essay1549 Words   |  7 Pagescomponential model of creativity (Campbell and Dubois, â€Å"On theories of† 14). These include domain-relevant skills, creative thinking skills and motivation (Campbell and Dubois, â€Å"On theories of† 14). Both of these theorists go hand in hand providing me with the framework for my best work. This essay will discuss how Amabile’s theory for intrinsic motivation and Burstein’s lesson of experience and loss, align in my creative process to be conducive to my work. Burstein describes one of the lessons toRead MoreMotivation Is The Psychological Force That Determines The Direction Of A Person s Behavior851 Words   |  4 Pageswere hired to do. However, in taking a hard, and honest look at this case, we came to see, realize, and accept, that the problem wasn’t in fact the analysts, but their manager; a team is only as good as their leader. The the root of the problem became apparent – lack of motivation – a manager’s job to eradicate. As the case was laid out, there was no sign of any form of motivation being implemented. â€Å"Ineffective managers often fail to follow [theories of motivation] and seem to have trouble motivatingRead MoreDefining Happiness Is Hard For Some People846 Words   |  4 Pagesmeans that happiness is not something materialistic, but is instead found through intrinsic motivation. Despite its definition online or in the dictionary, each person has their own definition of happiness, including myself. In my opinion, there are three simple, key things to make you happy: love, doing what you love, and finding happiness within oneself. True happiness comes from enjoying the things one has and taking advantage of the people who love and support you. A quote by H. Jackson Brown,Read MoreMotivation And Its Impact On Performance860 Words   |  4 PagesMotivation and its Impact on Performance Tony Mcalphin, Student Eastern Florida State College A persons’ performance is dependent on their willingness to accomplish a goal. There are different aspects that make up motivation and performance. In this paper, we will learn what defines both motivation and performance, and how they affect each other. What is Motivation? A person’s motivation is what drives them to set a goal and accomplish it. Merriam-Webster(2013) describes motivation as, â€Å"the generalRead MoreForeign Language Learning Motivation As An Integrative Factor1506 Words   |  7 Pageseven if the program does not require it. Drawing on previous research on foreign language learning motivation as an integrative factor by Gardner (2004), intrinsic and extrinsic motivation by Noels (2000), second language motivational self-system by Dà ¶rnyei (2007) and motivation as an investment by Norton (2010), this ethnography study will look to examine the foreign language learning motivation of a selected group of students at the University of Pennsylvania’s Graduate School of Education. EachRead MoreFinancial Rewards And Incentives Should Be Used1364 Words   |  6 Pagesevaluate. Employee motivation is considered to be an important component of an organization to accomplish its objectives successfully. Managers use tools like financial as well as non-financial rewards and incentives to increase motivation. While financial rewards are generally considered to be beneficial, non-financial rewards also have an important role to play because of their impact on different types of motivation such as intrinsic and extrinsic. In general, intrinsic motivation is related to enjoymentRead MoreWhat Motivates Me : My Life, My Friend, God, And Other Peoples Words Of Wisdom981 Words   |  4 PagesI know there are a number of motivations and different ways to be motivated. To my experience, I always thought motivation was being inspired by someone else with their wisdom and testimony of experiences. What motivates me are my family, God, and other peoples words of wisdom. I have a 60-year-old professor who’s shared his experiences in life, the mistakes he’s made, and what he’s learned over time. His words of wisdom have motivated me in a big way, and has changed my perspective in life. LearningRead MoreThe Role Of Achievement Motivation On Industrial Development : A Study Of Port Harcourt Municipal Essay1587 Words   |  7 PagesTHE REQUIREMENTS FOR RN TO MSN PROGRAMME OCTOBER 7TH 2016 THE ROLE OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION IN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA (A CASE STUDY OF PORT HARCOURT MUNICIPAL) ABSTRACT This study focused on â€Å"The Role of Achievement Motivation in Industrial development: A study of Port Harcourt Municipal. The onus of the research was to X-ray the extent to which the role of achievement motivation from childhood could be instrumental to industrial development in Nigerian. In addition, some

St. Anthony the Hermit and St. Catherine of Siena, Essay Example For Students

St. Anthony the Hermit and St. Catherine of Siena, Essay according to their respective biographers St. Athanasius the Great and Raymundus De Vineis, believed in following the footsteps of Jesus Christ. Although both focus on different types of examples, Athanasius and Vineis both agreed that a saint must not give in to his/her temptations and must have the power to perform miracles. However, Athanasius definition of the social consciousness of a saint was almost completely opposite of Vineis. Athanasius and Vineis defined many of the boundaries of sainthood similarly, yet also differed on some interpretations of saintliness. Athanasius and Vineis agreed that one act of holiness was the reluctance to give in to temptation. Anthony and Catherine, as expressed by their respective biographers, renounced worldly desires such as food, money and lust. However, though both Anthony and Catherine faced temptation, they faced different forms of it. According to Athanasius, Anthony faced many evils that usually pertained to wealth or acts of lust. But through prayer and belief the Lord delivered Anthony from these evils. Now as he went on he again saw, not this time a phantom, but real gold lying in the way. Whether it was the enemy that pointed it out, or whether it was a higher power training the disciple and proving to the devil that he cared nothing even for real riches, he himself did not say, and we do not know; only that it was gold that he saw. Antony marvelled sic at the quantity, but avoided it like fire and passed on without looking back, running swiftly on till he lost sight of the place and knew not where it was (Athanasius, p.19). Athanasius went on to write many other examples very similar to this one, but every time, Anthony saw temptation and he simply ignored it and put it out of his mind. Catherine also faced temptation, but unlike Athanasius, Vineis focused on food as the principal enticement. By the age of twenty, Catherine gave up meat and wine in order to follow the path of Jesus. Vineis wrote that God came to Catherine and blessed her for all of her hard labors and quenched her worldly cravings. After this tyme the holie maid was so replenished with heavenlie grace that she neither did, nor might eate, her bodilie meate in such sort, as she was wont to doe before (Vineis, p.167). After this, Catherine no longer needed food to survive, but at certain times she seemed almost forced, usually by her husband, to eat those foods that she formerly craved so she would not die. The Lord came to Catherine and told her not to worry and to obey what her husband asked of her. Vineis seemed to convey a message that after a person has been blessed by God, that person will not need to worry about how his/her actions will affect his/her standing with God in heaven. Athanasius and Vineis considered the performance of miracles holy, primarily the power to heal. However, although Athanasius depicted Anthony as having the power to heal, he tended to focus on different aspects of Anthonys holiness, whereas Vineis portrayed healing as Catherines primary saintly power. Catherine used her gift to heal many people during her lifetime, but many people did not realize Catherines true ability to heal until shortly after her death. But bicause, being a weake woman, she could not come her selfe to touch anie part of her bodie or garmentes, by reason of the great presse and crowd of the people: she praied some one, that stood there neere to the beere, that he would be so good, as to take a vele of hers, and put it to some part of the bodie, and so deliver it unto her againe. When she had received her vele againe, she put it to her armes and foorthwith her arme was perfectly healed, and in as good state, as ever it was before. The which when she perceived, she cried out for ioye, and declared to all the people, that were there present, what a wonderfull worke our Lord had wrought upon her. .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50 , .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50 .postImageUrl , .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50 , .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50:hover , .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50:visited , .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50:active { border:0!important; } .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50:active , .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50 .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u8816f1e3980e71d3d0fc8050c0a96b50:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Vietnam: The War We Should Hav Essay Wherupon they brought in manie other weake and feeble creatures, hoping, that if they might come to .

The Evolution of Bacterial Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus History, Mechanisms, and Remedial Strategies Essay Example

The Evolution of Bacterial Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: History, Mechanisms, and Remedial Strategies Essay The discovery of penicillin by Fleming in 1929 was a breakthrough that seemed to ensure recovery from bacterial infections, in particular S. aureus infections.   Unfortunately, resistance was observed almost immediately after the â€Å"wonder drug† was released for public use.   Ever since, the battle between man and bacteria has continued.   However, in the last decade, an increasing numbers of S. aureus strains have appeared, especially the Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Vancomycin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA).   These strains were not common at one time and were basically found in a few hospitals.   Nowadays, their spread is endemic.   Not only hospitals have them but closed community institutions with elderly people and people with disabilities.   Individuals with compromised immune systems are most at risk since they cannot defend themselves against the bacteria.   Bacteria like S. aureus have established different levels of resistance, which are mostly based on genetic recombination and the acquisition of Resistance Transformation Factors (RTFs) onto their plasmids.   Acquisition can come from other strains of S. aureus or other species of bacteria.   It should be very clear that bacterial resistance is a threatening problem that has been caused by the overuse as well as the misuse of antibiotics like penicillin.   In addition, antimicrobial products work the same way than antibiotics do, thereby creating a much larger environmnent for mutants to appear, especially when they are overused.   Many research laboratories are now designing novel drugs that they hope will replace the failing antibiotics.   The main strategy is to target specific components of the resistance pathways and engineer molecules that will interfere with these pathways at different levels. The Evolution of Bacterial Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: History, Mechanisms, and Remedial Strategies In the United States alone, 500,000 patients get a staphylococcal infection every year.   Staphylococcus aureus is found on the skin or in the nose of a healthy person.   S. aureus infections vary in their gravity.   They can go from minor skin infections such as pimples, boils, and cellulitis, even causing abscesses.   Severe infections threaten lives: pneumonia, meningitis, endocarditis, Toxic Shock Syndrome, and Septicemia are a few examples of such infections.   S. aureus belongs to the Gram-positive bacterial group.   Gram-positive indicates that when stained with Gram’s stain, the characteristic color of the cells taking up the dye will be violet blue (Gram-negative gives a red color).   It is called a coccus because it is spherical in shape.   In fact, it looks like grape-like clusters when viewed under a microscope.   When the cells are grown on blood agar, large golden yellow colonies are observed, hence the name â€Å"aureus† from the Latin w ord for gold.   The genome for the bacterium possesses approximately 2,600 genes, representing 2.8 million bp of DNA.   Plasmids may also be counted as part of its genome.   The basic ways an infection can spread is through skin contacts with an infected individual, contact through an infected open wound, as well as contacts with contaminated objects such as clothing, sheets, towels, and even athletic equipment.   S. aureus can survive on domesticated animals and is known to cause mastitis in cows.   Fundamentally, human to human contacts are the most worrisome reason why a S. aureus infection can spread: nocosomial contaminations and infections can affect different individuals, from babies to older adults, all having a weaker immune system, therefore, being at risk for a potential deadly outcome. (Staphylococcus, 1-3) We will write a custom essay sample on The Evolution of Bacterial Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: History, Mechanisms, and Remedial Strategies specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Evolution of Bacterial Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: History, Mechanisms, and Remedial Strategies specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Evolution of Bacterial Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: History, Mechanisms, and Remedial Strategies specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Discussion Penicillin’s effect on Staphylococci was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1929 when his agar plate with the cocci became contaminated with a Penicillium mold.   By 1946, penicillin became available and proved very effective in killing staphylocci as well as streptocci.   The remarkable characteristic of penicillin was its selective toxicity, meaning that the drug was able to kill the bacteria but not the host.   At that point, the majority of the medical establishment and the public were convinced that penicillin was a â€Å"wonder drug†.   Unfortunately, resistance to the antibiotic became apparent a short while after its introduction.   Around the late 1940s and into the 1950’s other drugs were discovered: streptomycin, chloroamphenicol, and tetracycline.   Even though these drugs had wide spectrum efficiency against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, it was short-lived.   After a Shigella outbreak in 1953 Japan, these drugs were fou nd to have become useless because this bacterium species was resistant to all of them.   By 1950, 40% of hospital S. aureus isolates were resistant to penicillin.   By 1960, the percentage had risen to 80%.   Scientists needed to understand how resistant strains of bacteria in general were coming into existence.   In addition, it became necessary to develop a strategy to eliminate or at least lessen the bacterial resistance problem. (Chambers, 2001) The basis for general microbial resistance relies on two main categories: a natural resistance and an acquired resistance.   A natural resistance may arise due to the presence of a key gene causing the appearance of a resistant phenotype.   Additionally, a naturally resistant bacterium may lack a transport system or a viable target to be hit by the drug.   The other type of resistance â€Å"strategy† involves the bacterium undergoing either a spontaneous mutation and selection or an exchange of genes between strains and/or species.   Conjugation (cell to cell contact as DNA is transferred from donor to recipient), transduction (viral gene transfer) by a phage, and transformation (new genes provided by a lysed cell) are the main ways bacteria genetically recombine their DNA.   Usually, plasmids contain the Resistance Transfer Factors (RTFs) that confer resistance to a recipient strain or species. (Todar, 2006) Antibiotic-resistant infections are dangerous because no drug can kill the infectious bacteria, clearly implying that mortality will be high, especially in individuals with compromised immune systems like AIDS patients, for example.   One general reason for the emergence of resistant strains or species of bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus, is the excessive use of antibiotics and their misuse for viral infections.   Viruses are not susceptible to antibiotics.   Furthermore, patients are told to take the drugs for a specific length of time.   However, many people believe (falsely) that if they feel better, they can stop taking the antibiotics and â€Å"save some for later†.   In that case, all the bacterial cells are not killed if a sufficient dose of antibiotics is not taken.   Therefore, surviving cells may include mutants that are now drug-resistant.   These mutants can then infect the host or infect someone else through contact with the host.   Anothe r danger is the contemporary overuse of antimicrobial products (hand and body soaps, kitchenware, clothes, pillows, baby toys etc).   The multiplication of these types of products creates the perfect environment for mutants for the same reason than that of the overuse of antibiotics. Penicillins and cephalosporins were used against S. aureus.   Their mechanism of action was to inhibit cell wall synthesis due to the beta-lactam central ring structure of the drug.   However, S. aureus became resistant to penicillin by using a specific type of enzymes, the beta-lactamases, which opens the beta-lactam ring, rendering the drug useless.   So, other drugs were needed to counteract these enzymes.   One strategy was to create beta-lactamase-resistant penicillins, such as methicillin, oxacillin, for example, that are able to resist degradation by the enzymes.   A second strategy was to synthesize drugs that could be used to bind to beta-lactamases irreversibly, thereby preventing the enzymes to catalyze the opening of the beta-lactam ring of penicillins and cephalosporins.   Such drugs are amoxicillin and clavulanic acid.   Yet, the bacteria were not out of options.   As mentioned above, penicillin is involved in the interruption of cell wall synthesis sinc e beta-lactam antibiotics are structural analogs of the modular components of peptidoglycan.   Penicillin Binding Proteins (PBPs) are present in bacterial cells in large numbers and are involved in the final steps of the synthesis of peptidoglycan, the major component of bacterial cell walls.   The mechanism is based on the structural analogy of penicillins with modular components of the peptidoglycan.   The PBPs bind penicillin irreversibly, inactivating the enzyme.   Inhibition of the PBPs triggers the formation of defects within the wall, weakening the cell to lysis and death.   Besides using beta-lactamases, S. aureus and other bacteria overcame the inactivation of the PBPs by overproduction and mutation of the enzymes to a lower affinity for penicillins.   The resulting resistance then produced MRSA (Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Methicillin is a penicillin derivative) and subsequently, VRSA (Vancomycin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus).   Vancomycin is a totally different type of antibiotics.   Essentially, it is a glycopeptide that inihibits peptidoglycan synthesis.   As discussed previously, genetic recombination allows the bacteria to modify or produce enzymes to combat the drugs.   Resistance to Methicillin occurs by the acquisition of mecA, which codes for an altered PBP that has a lower affinity.   Resistance to glycopeptides is caused by the acquisition of the vanA gene.   Interestingly, the vanA gene originates from another species of bacteria (enterococci) and codes for an enzyme that produces an altered peptidoglycan that vancomycin is unable to bind to. (Blot, Vandewoude, Hoste, Colardyn, 2002; Chang et al., 2003; Walsh, Howe, 2002) The extent of the resistance problem is increasing.   In the past few years, the decrease of vancomycin susceptibility has been prevalent in many epidemic lineages.   In fact, reduced vancomycin susceptibility is found in most MRSA lineages as well, amplifying the resistance problem.   From a genetic standpoint, the emergence of â€Å"distinct pandemic clones† has the potential to lead to more MRSA infections, rendering them almost impossible to treat.   S. aureus infections have been reported in hospitals all over the world (U.S. included), in closed communities like institutionalized elderly people and people with physical or mental disabilities.   Food-borne infections with S. aureus have been seen as well. (Enright, Robinson, Randle, Feil, Grundmann, Spratt, 2002) Many academic research laboratories are searching for ways to lessen or stop the resistance problems, with S. aureus and most bacteria.   Modern research aims at producing novel molecules to oppose bacterial resistance measures.   This implies that drug design is essential to find new drugs that will evade resistance mechanisms.   In addition, progress in one bacterial strain may help have more options for another strain or species.   The following two publications are the best examples of what biochemists are doing to combat bacterial resistance.   Pratt and colleagues (2003) have worked on the design of brand new molecules: the aryl malonamates.   The strategy employed was to design isomers of natural substrates for the bacterial enzyme and modify certain structural elements to produce compounds able to inhibit it (the enzymes in this study belong to P99 Enterobacter clocae). (Cabaret, Adediran, Pratt, Wakselman, 2003)   Other targets needed to be hit.   Pratt and c olleagues (2004) designed compounds aimed at inhibiting a peptidoglycan peptidase, an enzyme involved in cell wall synthesis, by using a novel beta-lactam mimetic of a peptidoglycan component. (Josephine, Kumar, Pratt, 2004)   In this example, the beta lactam structure is further modified to mimic elements of the peptidoglycan layer, in this case targeting side-chains.   These strategies are very hard to work out and may take years to complete.   However, more structural studies of key inhibitory components of S. aureus and others may give more ideas on how to create inhibitors. Strategies need to be implemented to prevent these infections in the first place.   Good hygiene is a very simple idea but it has always been effective.   The use of antibiotics should be very strictly regulated and the public should always be educated as to how they should take their medication.   Finally, as resistant strains are increasing for S. aureus, combining the MRSA lineages with vancomycin/glycopeptides resistance, more research must be done to design new drugs to combat the evolution of resistance.